The ecomics of ecosystems and biodiversity: scoping the scale

The G8 decided in March 2007 to initiate a “Review on the economics of biodiversity loss”, in the so called Potsdam Initiative: 'In a global study we will initiate the process of analysing the global economic benefit of biological diversity, the costs of the loss of biodiversity and the failure to take protective measures versus the costs of effective conservation. The study is being supported by the European Commission (together with the European Environmental Agency and in cooperation with the German Government. “The objective of the current study is to provide a coherent overview of existing scientific knowledge upon which to base the economics of the Review, and to propose a coherent global programme of scientific work, both for Phase 2 (consolidation) and to enable more robust future iterations of the Review beyond 2010.

Coat Polymorphism in Eurasian Lynx: Adaptation to Environment or Phylogeographic Legacy?

We studied the relationship between the variability and contemporary distribution of pelage phenotypes in one of most widely distributed felid species and an array of environmental and demographic conditions. We collected 672 photographic georeferenced records of the Eurasian lynx throughout Eurasia. We assigned each lynx coat to one of five phenotypes. Then we fitted the coat patterns to different environmental and anthropogenic variables, as well as the effective geographic distances from inferred glacial refugia. A majority of lynx were either of the large spotted (41.5%) or unspotted (uniform, 36.2%) phenotype. The remaining patterns (rosettes, small spots and pseudo-rosettes) were represented in 11.0%, 7.4%, and 3.9% of samples, respectively. Although various environmental variables greatly affected lynx distribution and habitat suitability, it was the effect of least-cost distances from locations of the inferred refugia during the Last Glacial Maximum that explained the distribution of lynx coat patterns the best. Whereas the occurrence of lynx phenotypes with large spots was explained by the proximity to refugia located in the Caucasus/Middle East, the uniform phenotype was associated with refugia in the Far East and Central Asia. Despite the widely accepted hypothesis of adaptive functionality of coat patterns in mammals and exceptionally high phenotypic polymorphism in Eurasian lynx, we did not find well-defined signs of habitat matching in the coat pattern of this species. Instead, we showed how the global patterns of morphological variability in this large mammal and its environmental adaptations may have been shaped by past climatic change.publishedVersio

Saavutettavuus mahdollisuuksien määrittäjänä : tapaustutkimus Perun Amazonilta

Accessibility is a crucial factor for interaction between areas in economic, cultural, political and environmental terms. Therefore, information concerning accessibility is relevant for informed decision making, planning and research. The Loreto region in the Peruvian Amazonia provides an interesting scene for an accessibility study. Loreto is sparsely populated and because there are few roads in the region, in practice all movement and transportation happens along the river network. Due to the proximity of the Andes, river dynamics are strong and annual changes in water level combined with these dynamic processes constantly reshape accessibility patterns of the region. Selling non-timber forest products (NTFP) and agricultural products (AP) in regional centres is an important income source for local rain forest dwellers. Thus, accessibility to the centres is crucial for the livelihood of local population. In this thesis I studied how accessible the regional centre Iquitos is from other parts of Loreto. In addition, I studied the regional NTFP/AP trade patterns and compared them with patterns of accessibility. Based on GPS-measurements, using GIS, I created a time-distance surface covering Loreto. This surface describes the time-distance to Iquitos, along the river network. Based on interview material, I assessed annual changes to accessibility patterns in the region. The most common regional NTFP/AP were classified according to the amount of time they can be preserved, and based on the accessibility surface, I modelled a catchment area for each of these product classes. According to my results, navigation speeds vary considerably in different parts of the river network, depending on river types, vessels, flow direction and season. Navigating downstream is, generally, faster than upstream navigation. Thus, Iquitos is better accessible from areas situated south and south west of the city, like along the rivers Ucayali and Marañon. Differences in accessibility between different seasons are also substantial: during the dry season navigation is slower due to lower water levels and emerging sand bars. Regularly operating boats follow routes only along certain rivers and close to Iquitos transport facilities are more abundant than in more distant areas. Most of the products present in Iquitos market places are agricultural products, and the share of NTFP is significantly smaller. Most of the products were classified in product class 2, and the catchment area for these products is rather small. Many products also belonged to class 5, and the catchment area for these products reaches up to the edges of my study area, following the patterns of the river network. The accessibility model created in this study predicts travel times relatively well, although in some cases the modelled time-distances are substantially shorter than observed time-distances. This is partly caused by the fact that real-life navigation routes are more complicated than the modelled routes. Rain forest dwellers having easier access to Iquitos have more opportunities in terms of the products they decide to market. Thus, they can better take advantage of other factors affecting the market potential of different products. In all, understanding spatial variation in accessibility is important. In the Amazonian context it is difficult to combine the accessibility-related needs of the local dwellers with conservation purposes and the future challenge lies in finding solution that satisfy both of these needs.Saavutettavuus on keskeinen tekijä eri alueiden välisessä vuorovaikutuksessa, olipa kyse taloudellisista, kulttuurisista, poliittisista tai ympäristöseikoista. Sen huomioiminen päätöksenteossa, suunnittelussa ja tutkimuksessa on tärkeää. Loreton maakunta Perun Amazonialla on mielenkiintoinen tutkimuskohde saavutettavuutta ajatellen. Alue on harvaanasuttua ja vaikeakulkuista; teitä on vähän, joten käytännössä kaikki liikkuminen ja kuljetukset perustuvat alueen jokiverkkoon. Andien läheisyydestä johtuen jokidynamiikka on alueella voimakasta, ja vuosittaiset tulvat sekä virtaaman vaihtelu yhdistettynä näihin dynaamisiin prosesseihin muokkaavat jatkuvasti alueen eri osien saavutettavuutta. Viljely- ja keräilytuotteiden myyminen isompien keskusten markkinoilla on yksi keskeisimmistä tulonhankkimismuodoista sademetsän asukkaille, joten keskusten saavutettavuudella on heidän elinkeinojensa kannalta tärkeä merkitys. Tässä tutkimuksessa selvitettiin, kuinka Iquitosin kaupunki on saavutettavissa muualta Loreton maakunnasta ja kuinka tämä saavutettavuus vaikuttaa viljely- ja keräiltytuotteiden kauppaan. Kenttätyöjakson aikana tehtyihin GPS-mittauksiin perustuen Loreton maakunnasta luotiin paikkatietomenetelmin aikaetäisyyspinta, joka kuvaa Iquitosin kaupungin saavutettavuutta jokiverkkoa pitkin. Saavutettavuuden vuotuista vaihtelua arvioitiin haastatteluaineiston pohjalta. Alueen tavallisimmat viljely- ja keräilytuotteet luokiteltiin niiden säilyvyyden perusteella ja kullekin tuoteluokalle mallinnettiin saavutettavuuteen pohjautuva keräilyalue. Tutkimus osoitti, että navigointinopeudet vaihtelevat huomattavasti jokiverkon eri osissa, riippuen jokityypistä, kulkuvälineestä, kulkusuunnasta ja vuodenajasta. Myötävirtaan navigointi on pääsääntöisesti nopeampaa kuin vastavirtaan navigointi, mistä johtuen Iquitos on paremmin saavutettavissa alueilta, joilta kuljetaan kaupunkiin myötävirtaan. Vuodenaikojen väliset erot saavutettavuudessa ovat myös suuret, sillä kuivana kautena navigointi on hitaampaa alhaisen vedenpinnan tason ja jokiin muodostuvien särkkien takia. Säännöllisesti liikennöivät laivat ja veneet kulkevat vain tiettyjä jokia pitkin, ja lähellä Iquitosia kuljetusmahdollisuudet ovat huomattavasti paremmat kuin kauempana keskuksesta. Suurin osa toreilla esiintyvistä tuotteista on viljelytuotteita, ja puhtaasti keräilytuotteiden osuus kaikista tuotteista on melko pieni. Suurin osa tuotteista luokiteltiin noin kolme päivää säilyviin tuotteisiin, joiden keräilyalue on hyvin suppea. Paljon tuotteita kuului myös yli viisi päivää säilyvien tuotteiden luokkaan, ja niiden keräilyalue ulottuu jokiverkkoa mukaillen monin paikoin maakunnan rajoille saakka. Saavutettavuusmalli arvioi aikaetäisyyttä suhteellisen hyvin, joskin paikoittain mallin mukaiset arvot ovat huomattavasti todellisia aikaetäisyyksiä lyhempiä. Todelliset navigointireitit ovat siis mallia monimutkaisempia. Paremman saavutettavuuden piirissä olevilla asukkailla on enemmän valinnanvaraa tuotteissa, joita he markkinoivat. Näin ollen he voivat kiinnittää enemmän huomiota muihin tekijöihin, joilla on vaikutusta tuotteiden markkinapotentiaalin. Saavutettavuuden alueellisen vaihtelun ymmärtäminen on tärkeää. Amazonialla haasteellista on yhdistää suojelunäkökulma ja paikallisten ihmisten tarpeet saavutettavuuden suhteen, ja tulevaisuuden haasteena on löytää ratkaisuja, jotka tyydyttävät molempia tarpeita

Landscape genetics of an endangered lemur (Propithecus tattersalli) within its entire fragmented range

Habitat fragmentation may strongly reduce individuals' dispersal among resource patches and hence influence population distribution and persistence. We studied the impact of landscape heterogeneity on the dispersal of the golden-crowned sifaka (Propithecus tattersalli), an endangered social lemur species living in a restricted and highly fragmented landscape. We combined spatial analysis and population genetics methods to describe population units and identify the environmental factors which best predict the rates and patterns of genetic differentiation within and between populations. We used non-invasive methods to genotype 230 individuals at 13 microsatellites in all the main forest fragments of its entire distribution area. Our analyses suggest that the Manankolana River and geographical distance are the primary structuring factors, while a national road crossing the region does not seem to impede gene flow. Altogether, our results are in agreement with a limited influence of forest habitat connectivity on gene flow patterns (except for North of the species' range), suggesting that dispersal is still possible today among most forest patches for this species. Within forest patches, we find that dispersal is mainly among neighbouring social groups, hence confirming previous behavioural observation

Evaluating Amphibian Vulnerability to Mercury Pollution from Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining in Madre de Dios, Peru

Environmental hazards commonly associated with gold mining include local pollution of the air, water, and soil. Specifically, mercury used to extract gold bioaccumulates in the environment, contaminating rivers and watersheds and posing a danger to wildlife in regards to its developmental, hormonal, and neurological effects. To conceal these typically illegal operations happening along rivers, artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) often occurs in remote areas with high faunal biodiversity. The Madre de Dios region of southern Peru is a global biodiversity hotspot and has been undergoing extensive ASGM for years. The impact of ASGM on biodiversity is largely unknown. This study uses random forest classification to map mining area in Madre de Dios and models pollutant transport from ASGM sites to predict what locations and species assemblages at risk. Multi Criteria Evaluation is used to determine how flow accumulation, distance from mining area, total suspended sediment load, and soil porosity influence the vulnerability of regions to mercury pollution. The resulting risk map identifies areas of greatest risk of mercury pollution in Madre de Dios

Road development in the Brazilian Amazon and its ecological implications

Roads are a distinctive feature in any landscape, with many countries giving 1-2% of their land surface over to roads and roadsides (Forman 1998). However, the ecological effects of roads spread beyond the physical footprint of the network and may impact 15-20% of the land or more (Forman & Alexander 1998). The Brazilian Amazon contains approximately one third of the world’s remaining rainforest, covering an area of 4.1 million km2. The region is highly biodiverse with 10-20 percent of the planet’s known species, it is also one of the three most bioculturally diverse areas in the world (Loh & Harmon 2005), and it provides many valuable ecosystem services. However, the Brazilian Amazon is rapidly undergoing extensive development with widespread land-use conversion. Road development is often perceived as the initial stage of development, opening access to remote areas for colonisation, agriculture development, resource extraction, and linked with these; deforestation (Chomitz & Gray 1996, Laurance et al. 2001, Perz et al. 2007, Laurance et al. 2009, Caldas et al. 2010). As such roads are a key spatial determinant of land use conversion in the Amazon region, dictating the spatial pattern of deforestation and biodiversity loss (Fearnside 2005, Kirby et al. 2006, Perz et al. 2008). Given that roads are a key spatial determinant of land use conversion and that they have extensive impacts on rates and patterns of habitat loss, it is important that we know how much, how fast and where road networks are developing in this globally important ecosystem. In this thesis, I aim to construct models of road network development to help better understand and predict the impacts of economic development in the Brazilian Amazon.Open Acces

Endemic birds in Papua New Guinea's montane forests: human use and conservation

Escalating anthropogenic impacts on tropical biodiversity have amplified the vulnerability of endemic species. Selective harvesting of species is one of the major threats to birds and mammal species in the tropics. Many indigenous cultures, however, have long established cultural associations with certain species. The hunting and trade of species have been mainly for subsistence and socio-cultural ties within their communities. However, contemporary threats associated with human population increase from within such societies and externally driven demand such as wildlife trafficking exacerbate the pressure particularly for vulnerable species. Threats to endemic tropical species are not isolated to one but often synergies between many factors simultaneously affecting changes to species distribution. In addition to immediate anthropogenic impacts such as population pressure exerted on species numbers and species habitats, there is growing evidence that demonstrates that climate change is causing shifts in species distribution. Such cases have been demonstrated in tropical island montane forests. The island of New Guinea is the largest tropical island in the world and accommodates the third largest tropical rainforests. New Guinea has over 600 bird species (195 endemic), but some species are under threat from unsustainable hunting practices, climate change, and landscape modification. The central highlands is one of the most populous areas and has undergone thousands of years of human modification. The biodiversity of the island of New Guinea remains one of the understudied sites in the world. Looming threats necessitate an assessment of the vulnerability of species important to subsistence and culture. This thesis addresses the need for further understanding of the vulnerability of species to anthropogenic impacts associated with hunting and trade and the effects of climate change on endemic montane species. The thesis begins by improving the contemporary understanding of trade of bird species in the central highlands (large scale) of Papua New Guinea. The contemporary costs of species traded were delineated from this study and compared to the known records over 40 years. Next, case study sites (fine scale) were conducted to understand how rural forest communities hunt and trade wildlife and the social nuances that affect their choice and locality of hunting activities. The study then uses species identified from trade and hunting to conduct a vulnerability assessment of species most at risk from selective harvesting. This assessment may also serve as a guide to conservation efforts in the central highlands. Finally, a rare endemic species, Paradisornis rudolphi (Blue Bird of Paradise) was selected from the vulnerability assessment to make predictions of its distribution change due to climate change. Overall, this thesis demonstrates the importance of applying an interdisciplinary approach that is relevant to the region, context of culture, society, and conservation. This study suggests that vulnerable species used in culture are also at risk from effects of climate change. This information, in addition to other extrinsic factors such as land use change (not studied), is vital for conservation of the endemic montane species, as well as the persistence of cultural diversity in New Guinea. There are limitations to this study which include the lack of a better climate model for Papua New Guinea. The species distribution model should serve as a conservative prediction of the outcome of a rare endemic species. However, even with a conservative approach, there is indication of the need for proactive approaches at the rural and national levels. A way forward would be to consider means of income generation that also support the conservation of species, such as eco-tourism. At the policy level, there is a need to revise the policy to reflect species management and the enforcement of monitoring of unlawful trade particularly those that may be destined for international markets

Community Management of Natural Resources in Africa: Impacts, Experiences and Future Directions

More than twenty years have passed since community-based natural resource management (CBNRM) rose to prominence in different parts of Africa as a strategy for rural development, local empowerment, and conservation. Led by new ideas about the merits of decentralized, collective resource governance regimes, and creative field experiments such as Zimbabwe's CAMPFIRE, these community-based approaches evolved in a wide range of ecological, political, and social contexts across Africa. This review provides an unprecedented pan-African synthesis of CBNRM, drawing on multiple authors and a wide range of documented experiences from Southern, Eastern, Western and Central Africa. The review discusses the degree to which CBNRM has met poverty alleviation, economic development and nature conservation objectives. In its concluding chapter, the report suggests a way forward for strengthening CBNRM and addressing key challenges in the years ahead